Induced Resistance in Plants

Induced resistance is a defense system within plants which allows them to resist attacks from pests such as fungal or bacterial pathogens or insects. The defense system reacts to the external attack with physiological changes, triggered by the generation of proteins and chemicals that lead to activation of the plants immune system. Think about this in the same way as you would consider the reaction of your own immune system to attack, from, for example, a cold virus. The body reacts to the presence of an invader through several different mechanisms; however, the result is the same. The alarm has been sounded, and the system mounts a defense to the attack. Two Types of Induced Resistance Two main types of induced resistance exist: systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR). Systemic acquired resistance occurs when a localized wound is created on the plant, causing necrosis. The resistance is stimulated when a treatment designed to induce the resistance is applied to the spot where the pathogen has invaded the plant. The treatment can come in the form of another microbe, or as a chemical, such as salicylic acid. (An interesting fact: salicylic acid is also used to make aspirin!) The treatment triggers a systemic response in the plant, and the immune response is signaled. Obviously, this process takes some time to occur, depending on the plant species, the environmental conditions, and the nature of the pathogenic attack.Induced systemic resistance occurs when plant roots are colonized by plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), soil bacteria which directly and indirectly influence plant growth. When the PGPR sense a change in the plant, a physiological response is triggered via a pathway involving (again!) salicylic acid. The chemicals jasmonate and ethylene are also involved as signaling chemicals. Unlike SAR, necrotic lesions on the plant are not involved in ISR. Both resistance pathways lead to the same final ending -- the genes are different, the pathways are different, the chemical signals are different -- but they both induce the resistance of plants to attack by pests. Although the pathways are not alike, they can work synergistically, and therefore the scientific community decided in the early 2000s to consider ISR and SAR as synonyms. History of Induced Resistance Research The phenomenon of induced resistance has been realized for many years, but only since about the early 1990s has it been studied as a valid method of plant disease management. The most prophetic early paper on induced resistance was published in 1901 by Beauverie. Titled Essais dimmunization des vegetaux contre des maladies cryptogamiques, or Testing the immunization of plants against fungal diseases, Beauveries research involved adding a weakly virulent strain of the fungus Botrytis cinerea to begonia plants, and discovering that this imparted resistance to more virulent strains of the fungus. This research was followed up by Chester in 1933, who outlined the first general concept of plant defense systems in his publication titled The problem of acquired physiological immunity. The first biochemical evidence for induced resistance, however, was discovered in the 1960s. Joseph Kuc, widely considered to be the father of induced resistance research, demonstrated for the first time the induction of systemic resistance using the amino acid derivative phenylalanine, and its effect on imparting resistance of apples to apple scab disease (Venturia inaequalis). Recent Work and Commercialization of the Technology Although the presence and identification of several pathways and chemical signals have been elucidated, scientists are still unsure of the mechanisms involved for many plant species and many of their diseases or pests. For example, the resistance mechanisms involved for plant viruses are still not well understood. There are several resistance inducers -- called plant activators -- on the market. ActigardTMV was the first resistance inducer chemical on the market in the USA. It is made from the chemical benzothiadiazole (BTH) and registered for use in many crops, including garlic, melons, and tobacco. Another product involves proteins called harpins. Harpins are proteins produced by plant pathogens. Plants are triggered by the presence of harpins into a warning system to activate resistance responses. Currently, a company called Rx Green Solutions is marketing harpins as a product called Axiom. Key Terms to Know Phytoalexins: antimicrobial proteins that accumulate in plant cells following microbial infection. They do not appear in healthy tissues; they are only formed after infection or injury.Hypersensitive response: the rapid response triggered by a plant in response to pathogen attack.

A Critique Of Capitalism A Love Story ( 2009 ) By...

Neoliberalism in the 21st Century: The Failure of Marxism in a Critique of Capitalism: A Love Story (2009) by Michael Moore In this sociological study, an analysis of the rise of neoliberalism and the failure of Marxist ideology in the film Capitalism: A Love Story (2009) by Michael Moore. Moore’s film emulates the failed attempts to control and regulate a capitalist system that exploits the worker and the general public for the greater monetary profit of the ruling classes. In this system, the power of banking institutions, lack of governmental regulation, and â€Å"free market† ideology define the problem of neoliberal capitalist values that have become an endemic problem for a â€Å"democratic† society. Immanuel Wallerstein’s global view of capitalism defines the overarching dominance of neoliberal capitalism as a way to critique and analyze Moore’s frustration at a system that is destroying itself due to a lack of cooperation and collectivist participation in the American economy. Also, Luhmann’s functionalist theory defines the irrationality of capitalist i deology, which has created a social and cultural â€Å"norm† that supports capitalism—even though it is creating class division and poverty for a majority of the people. These aspects of Marxist and Functionalist perspectives critically define the underlying failure of Marxist ideology in Michael Moore’s Capitalism: A Love Story. In essence, Moore’s film defines the failure of Marxism in the rise of neoliberal capitalism inShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesPrinter: Courier/Kendalville Text Font: 10.5/12 ITC New Baskerville Std Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text. Copyright  © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibitedRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesAssistant: Ian Gold Senior Managing Editor: Judy Leale Senior Production Project Manager: Kelly Warsak Senior Operations Supervisor: Arnold Vila Operations Specialist: Ilene Kahn Senior Art Director: Janet Slowik Interior Design: Suzanne Duda and Michael Fruhbeis Permissions Project Manager: Shannon Barbe Manager, Cover Visual Research Permissions: Karen Sanatar Manager Central Design: Jayne Conte Cover Art: Getty Images, Inc. Cover Design: Suzanne Duda Lead Media Project Manager: Denise Vaughn

Personnel Management Large Organisations

Question: Discuss about the Personnel management in small organisations and human resource management in large organisations? Answer: Introduction Human resource management is defined as the management of a companys human resources in a way that they add more value to the organisation while achieving their individual career goals(Armstrong, 2006). This report gives an in-depth understanding of the role played by personnel management in small organisations such as Food for Health and the role played by human resource management (HRM) in large organisations such as Google. Difference between human resource management and personnel management Both HRM and personnel management are responsible for handling the growth and development of the most precious assets of the organisations that is their human resources in a manner that they eventually become more valuable for the organisation(Adewale Anthonia, 2013). Personnel management is a traditional approach to people management and is practiced by small organisations where the number of employees is less. Personnel management is characterised by indirect communication and slow decision making process(Bhatia, 2007). Contrary to this HRM is a modern approach to people management and is practiced by large organisations which view their employees are most precious assets which must be managed in a way to enhance their commitment towards organisations vision and values(Armstrong, 2011). HRM is characterised by direct communication and a comparatively quick decision making process. Function of Human Resource Management in Contributing to Organisational Purposes Different functions of HRM contributes towards organisational purposes in different ways such as, recruitment and selection function ensures right talent is available at right time to fill the positions matching their expertise and skills, training and development functions identify employee training needs and satisfy them in best possible manner, performance appraisal and reward system play a vital role in enhancing employee motivation, commitment and contribution towards the success of the organisation, employee relations functions measure level of job satisfaction and employee engagement to evaluate the strength of employer and employee relationship, Compliance with employment legislations focuses on developing an ethical and fair work environment with implementation of fair workplace policies and procedures (Deb, 2006). Line Managers Role and Responsibilities in Human Resource Management Implementing various HRM policies and procedures such as recruitment and selection, induction, performance appraisal, retention, conflict resolution, handle grievances, termination of employment etc are the primary responsibilities of a Line Manager (Wilson, 2005). A line managers role expect the individual to posses good leadership skills, promote sound industrial relations, comply with all employment legislation and encourage employee to actively participate in the process of decision making. Line managers are thus responsible for managing employees and getting the work done so that HR managers can take up more strategic roles and support various business strategies. Reasons for Human Resource Planning in Organisations The process of human resource planning involves organisational strategies for effective acquisition, utilisation, improvement and retention of human resources in a way that they show high contribution towards the achievement of organisational goals (Cooper Burke, 2011). Human resource planning process is required to forecast and meet future manpower needs. It ensures recruitment and selection of talented people that can contribute towards the knowledge economy of the organisation. In times of organisational change HR planning process plays an important role in minimising resistance to change and managing change. It also facilitates restructuring of work processes when needed and identifies individual training needs(Crawley, et al., 2013). HR planning process manages redundancy and retirement and is thus responsible for overall development of human resources. Stages involved in Human Resource Planning The seven stages that make up the HR planning process are: Analysing organisational objectives by measuring the objectives and targets of different departments and calculating the total amount of work that must be performed (McManus, 2006). Performing an audit of existing workforce their capabilities, skills, potential and overall performance. Forecasting future manpower needs to fill up vacant positions. Forecasting manpower supply and identifying internal and external sources that have matching skills and competencies to meet the demand. Maintaining equilibrium between demand and supply. Formulating a HR action plan based on the outcomes of prior stages(Salaman, et al., 2005). Last stage involves implementing, monitoring, controlling and evaluating the action plan for planning further improvements. Comparison of Recruitment and Selection Process at Google and Food for Health Google being a large organisation has a complex recruitment and selection process with 6-8 rounds which a candidate must pass to be a part of the company recognised worldwide as one of the best places to work (Morrow, 2008). The recruitment process comprises of two attitude and reasoning test, two to three technical interviews with managers at different levels and then two rounds with the HR where the candidates basis management and leadership skills are judged. Google has an internal HR recruitment team which are responsible for complete recruitment and selection process starting from creating job description, job posting, short listing, arranging interviews till induction of selected candidates(Morrow, 2008). Having a tough recruitment and selection process help Google hire some of the most competent employees who are future-oriented, vision-minded, innovation-mined, engagement-minded, and passion-mined and strive for excellence. Food for Health being a small organisation has a simple recruitment and selection process comprising of just 2-3 rounds(Food For Health, 2016). Most of the vacancies are passed to employment agencies as maintaining an internal HR department is not cost effective. A simple recruitment and selection process help the company identify good talent in a cost effective manner. Effectiveness of Recruitment and Selection process at Google and Food for Health Google has a complex recruitment and selection process which help the company hire competent employees who strive for excellence and innovation(Morrow, 2008). All most all vacancies are handled by internal recruitment and selection team as they understand the needs of the company better than any external employment agencies. Food for Health being a small organisation does not have enough budgets to maintain an internal recruitment and selection team thus use external employment agencies for meeting their human resource needs(Food For Health, 2016). It looks for candidates with knowledge of health hood industry and good communication skills which can be judged effectively through a simple recruitment and selection process. Link between Motivation Theory and Reward Management Motivational theories form the foundation for the development of reward management systems. Maslows need hierarchy theory and the two-factor theory also called motivators-hygiene model are the two most commonly used motivation theories which identify recognisation, money, work culture, incentives, work itself, security, safety, roles and responsibilities and interpersonal relationships as the factors that lead to high employee motivation (Snell Bohlander, 2012). While designing reward management systems organisations must ensure that these needs of the employees are satisfied in order to enhance motivation to deliver high performance and commitment towards the achievement of organisational goals. Evaluate the process of job evaluation and other factors determining pay The process of determining the value or worth of a job in comparison to other jobs within the organisation is defined as job evaluation (Miller, 2007). Skills, competencies, knowledge, qualification, responsibility, level in hierarchy, environmental conditions, occupational hazards, productivity, cost of living, government regulations, employee perception of wages, trade union, companys financial condition and supply and demand of labour in the market are some of the common factors that determine pay within an organisation. Effectiveness of Rewards Systems in Different Contexts Rewards systems within an organisation are designed to evaluate employee performance and reward them based on the level of their performance(Bhatia, 2007) Its primary purpose is to motivate employees to deliver high performance when performing individually or within groups. An organisations size, age, profitability, nature of sector in which it operated, demand and supply of human resources, employee expectations, nature of job, internal and external economic conditions, type of employment and environmental stability are some of the factors that influence effectiveness of rewards systems in different contexts. Methods for monitoring employee performance Methods which are commonly use for monitoring employee performance are; performance appraisal, sales report, error report, accuracy report, feedback from team members, supervisors and observation, use of self-monitoring tools like checklists and activity logs and 360 degree feedback techniques (Armstrong, 2011). Reasons for Cessation of Employment with an Organisation Medical situations, death, family obligations, unfair treatment, inappropriate management style, retirement age, unsatisfactory working conditions, insecurity of employment and secured a more attractive opportunity in some other organisation are some common reasons for cessation of employment within an organisation (Armstrong, 2006). Employment exist procedures used by Google and Food For Health Like its hiring process Google has a bit lengthy exist procedure with starts with submitting the resignation to the supervisor or manager, face to face discussion for negotiation and retention, acceptance of resignation, serving a notice period of 3 months or compensating with amount mentioned in employment terms, completing the exit documents and forms, and finally the exit interview to record employee experience and suggestions. However in case of Food for Health exists procedure is short and simple and ends with submitting the resignation to director, discussion for retention and experience with the company, and notice period of one month or as agreed. Impact of legal and regulatory framework on HRM and employment cessation arrangements HRM and employment cessation arrangements are affected by some of the regulatory and legal frameworks such as Health and Safety Act, Anti-Discrimination Act, Diversity, Equal Opportunity, Equal pay and Equal work etc(Armstrong, 2006). Legal acts such as the Employment Right Act (1996) oblige both employee and employer to adhere to the terms and conditions of employment contract or as stated in law of employment(Deb, 2006). As per employment rights any employee who is absent from work owing to any form of injury or sickness must is eligible for full paid leave day. Conclusion Personnel management in small organisations and human resource management in large organisations play almost similar role of managing and developing the human resources of an organisation in a way that they add more value to the organisation and show high commitment and contribution towards the achievement of desired organisational goals. References Adewale, O. O. Anthonia, A. A., (2013) Impact of Organizational Culture on Human Resource Practices: A Study of Selected Nigerian Private Universities. Journal of Competitiveness, 5(4), pp. 115-133. Armstrong, M., (2006) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Armstrong, M., (2011) Armstrong's Handbook of Strategic Human Resource Management. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Bhatia, S., (2007) Strategic Human Resource Management : Winning Through People. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications. Cooper, C. L. Burke, R. J., (2011) Human Resource Management in Small Business: Achieving Peak Performance. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Crawley, E., Swailes, S. Walsh, D., (2013) Introduction to International Human Resource Managemen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Deb, T., (2006) Strategic Approach to Human Resource Management. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers Dist. Food For Health, (2016) About Food For Health. [Online] Available at: https://www.foodforhealth.com.au/#about [Accessed 2016]. McManus, J., (2006) Leadership: Project and Human Capital Management. Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann. Miller, A. P., (2007) How to Manage Human Resource in Organizations. Maitland: Xulon Press. Morrow, B., (2008) Internal Analysis of Google Inc.. [Online] Available at: https://benmorrow.info/blog/internal-analysis-of-google-inc [Accessed 2015]. Salaman, G., Storey, J. Billsberry, J., (2005) Strategic Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice. London: Sage. Snell, S. Bohlander, G., (2012) Managing Human Resources. New York: Cengage Learning. Wilson, J. P., (2005) Human Resource Development: Learning Training for Individuals Organizations. London: Kogan Page Publishers.